President George W. Bush signed the Public Law 107-110, known as the “No Child Left Behind Act of 2001,” into effect on January 8, 2002, at a high school in Hamilton, Ohio. Authored primarily by Representative John Boehner, Representative George Miller, and Senator Judd Gregg, and sponsored by Senator Edward Kennedy, the No Child Left Behind Act (referred to henceforth as “NCLB”) was intended to close the academic achievement gap in America’s public schools. 

Targeted primarily in the fields of mathematics and reading, NCLB sought to hold schools to a standard of adequate yearly progress (henceforth referred to as “AYP”) in an effort to make all students proficient in those fields by the year 2014. Though based on an unquestionably noble premise, NCLB has encountered harsh criticism from many who say the law unduly burdens already struggling schools by imposing unrealistic deadlines.

To understand the criticism, we first need to understand what the law does. NCLB is a heavily modified reauthorization of a 1965 law known as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The law established a classification known as Title I, under which schools composed at least 40% of students from low-income families would receive financial assistance from the U.S. federal government. 

As a condition of receiving this funding, the revised “No Child Left Behind” version of the law requires all states to implement stringent performance standards in mathematics and reading, and to conduct annual statewide assessments of student achievement under those standards. Schools are allowed to determine their own standards, as long as they withstand scrutiny from the Department of Education. 

Schools receiving Title I funding must make “adequate yearly progress” towards proficiency, with the goal of 100% of American students meeting proficiency by 2014. State education officials are allowed to define AYP within the context of their existing state assessment evaluations, providing the Department of Education feels that particular classification will suffice to bring all students to proficiency by 2014.

Schools that fail to make AYP are identified as in need of improvement, and subject to corrective action through state agencies. If, after a year of corrective action, the school fails to make AYP for a second time, the school may be closed, restructured as a charter school, or placed under direct control of state education officials.

The bulk of the controversy over NCLB stems from the standardized testing required by the law. Within this area of the legislation, two distinct issues have been identified. First, whether or not the results of standardized tests adequately reflect academic growth. Secondly, there is debate over whether or not the focus on standardized tests is having a negative impact on classroom dynamics.

With regards to the accuracy of the tests, much of the concern lies with the varying composition and internal dynamics of America’s classrooms. Some researchers contend that the movement of students from grade to grade makes standardized testing at a specific grade level useless for measuring academic growth. There is also the question of whether or not many state assessments are unreasonably including special-needs students and English-as-a-second-language (ESL) students in their evaluation of individual schools.

Regarding the impact of the tests on the classroom environment, many researchers have noted a major re-prioritization of curriculum following the passage of NCLB. Many teachers are all but abandoning the social sciences in order to get their students prepared for math and reading assessments. In addition to changes in curriculum, there is significant evidence to support the argument  that the one-size-fits-all methodology of state assessments, and the similarly-themed classroom instruction necessary to prepare for them, is alienating students with different learning styles as teachers force the material through a narrow channel of instruction.

There has been significant discussion regarding potential reforms that could be implemented to steer the law back towards its intended purpose. One of the most commonly discussed propositions is allowing for increased flexibility with regards to which students are tested under the state accountability requirements. If only the underperforming students were assessed, many policy analysts have argued, it would be possible to track academic improvement and address major issues without blaming otherwise fine schools for isolated problems. Many have also proposed deadline extensions for underperfoming schools that are otherwise making great strides towards meeting proficiency.

I believe the haphazard nature of No Child Left Behind in its present iteration necessitates reform. Specifically, I think the federal government needs to come up with a concrete, nationwide definition of both “adequate yearly progress” and “proficiency.” I also believe we need to abandon the concept of concrete national deadlines for meeting proficiency, and focus on long-term growth.

Some might argue that the variation in teaching styles across the country necessitates relativism in accountability mandates, I would respond by saying that if we are to impose stringent requirements on our public schools, it is only fair that we reassess that we articulate exactly what we expect of them.

Source Notes

1. Source Note: “Under ‘No Child’ Law, Even Solid Schools Suffer”
2. Source Note: “Science Evolves in Classrooms”
3. Source Note: “Only 48% of California high schools met federal standards, even with easier measure”
4. Source Note: “No Child Left Behind: Doomed to Fail?”
5. Source Note: “The Case for National Standards, Accountability, and Fiscal Equity”
6. Source Note: “Building on Results: A Blueprint for Strengthening the No Child Left Behind Act”
7. Source Note: “Standards-Based Accountability under No Child Left Behind”
8. Source Note: “Leaving NCLB Behind (Figure 3)”
9. Source Note: “President Bush signs the No Child Left Behind Act into law”
10. Source Note: “Public Law 107-110″
11. Source Note: “Interview with Senator Joanne Verger (D-Coos Bay)”
12. Source Note: “The Mistaken Promise of No Child Left Behind”
13. Source Note: “The future of No Child Left Behind”
14. Source Note: “What is Measured is Treasured: The Impact of the No Child Left Behind Act on Nonassessed Subjects”
15. Source Note: “Methodological issues in achieving school accountability”
16. Source Note: “Interview with Megan Koler”
17. Source Note: “Interview with Deb Larsen”
18. Source Note: “Interview with Jessica Fox”
19. Source Note: “The Backend Accountability Question”
20. Source Note: “A thoughtless education”
21. Source Note: “Race, inequality, and educational accountability: the irony of ‘No Child Left Behind’”
22. Source Note: “Who is No Child Left Behind Leaving Behind”
23. Source Note: “Education secretary announces changes to No Child Left Behind”
24. Source Note: “No Child Left Behind changes Oregon education”
25. Source Note: “No Child Left Behind: A New Era in Education”
26. Source Note: “Standards, Accountability and Flexibility: Americans Speak on No Child Left Behind Reauthorization”
27. Source Note: “No Child Left Behind, Accountability and AYP”
28. Source Note: “No Child Left Behind: The Numbers”
29. Source Note: “Falling Behind Schedule”
30. Source Note: “White House official touts unpopular ‘No Child Left Behind’”

Summary: White House PR fails to impress the public in proficiency-challenged Washington state.

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Journalistic; Newspaper article

Publication Information: Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 1/16/08

Author: Brian Slodysko

Location: seattlepi.nwsource.com

Accessed: March 9, 2009

Support:

• Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings: Said she would continue to work towards the Department of Education’s stated goal of nationwide proficiency by 2014.
• National Center for Education Statistics: The organizations data indicates the state of Washington is below the average national graduation rate, with 74% of high school freshman going on to graduate.
• Dr. Monty Neill, Executive Director, National Center for Fair and Open Testing: Neill argues that Washington students’ performance on reading assessments has declined following the passage of NCLB, and that the data proving this stands in contradiction of the official Department of Education stance on the law.

Audience and Agenda: The Seattle Post-Intelligencer was founded in 1863, and is the largest newspaper by circulation in the Pacific Northwest, at 435,581. The newspaper’s website receives approximately 3.6 million visits per month, according to its Quantcast Audience Profile, with 2.9 million of those from readers in the United States.

Usefulness: The article illustrates the highly contentious nature of No Child Left Behind within state-level education circles. While there is widespread agreement on the need for accountability in education, NCLB has left a sour taste in the mouths of many state and local educators. The article helps frame the current debate over NCLB, making useful for setting the stage for the rest of my research project.

Works cited:

“About the Post-Intelligencer,” http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/facts/

“Top 100 Newspapers in the United States,” http://www.infoplease.com/ipea/A0004420.html

“seattlepi.nwsource.com – Quantcast Audience Profile,” http://www.quantcast.com/seattlepi.nwsource.com

Summary: Multimedia display shows most schools failing to meet proficiency deadlines.

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Journalistic; Multimedia; Map with text

Publication Information: The New York Times, 10/13/08

Author: N/A

Location: nytimes.com

Accessed: March 12, 2009

Support:

• Color-coded map of the United States: The color shadings represent the approximate percentage of schools in the state failing to meet the 2008 proficiency goals. Washington and Florida both have 50-84% of their schools still below their promised 2008 benchmarks, and Hawaii’s schools aren’t fairing much better, with 25-50% still below the minimum scores.

Audience and Agenda: The New York Times is, along with the Washington Post, the major national newspaper most commonly cited in U.S. academic circles. It is one of the only metropolitan newspapers that does not rely primarily on commercial wire services for coverage outside its namesake locale. According to its Quantcast audience profile, it shares online readership  primarily with other business-minded publications such as The Economist and The Wall Street Journal, and recieves approximately 13.9 million visits per month.

Usefulness: This multimedia display provides a visual breakdown of the states that are still behind in meeting their federally-mandated, self-determined proficiency requirements. As most people are familiar with geographical boundaries of the individual states, the presentation is especially effective at conveying the scale of the noncompliance/under-performance. Visual presentations are especially useful for explaining research results to lay audiences, making it a valuable addition to my research project.

Works cited:

““nytimes.com – Quantcast Audience Profile,”http://www.quantcast.com/nytimes.com

Summary: Multimedia artifact displays the 

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Journalistic; Multimedia; Graph and Text

Publication Information: The New York Times, 6/12/08

Author: N/A

Location: nytimes.com

Accessed: March 12, 2009

Support:

• National achievement levels according to the Department of Education: The graphic is a line plot of the number of American students at levels of “basic achievement” in math and reading. Between 2001, when No Child Left Behind was passed, and 2007, there was a 20% increase in the number of students found proficient in math. In reading, however, there was approximately a 3% decrease in the number of students meeting the minimum standard for proficiency.

Audience and Agenda: The New York Times is, along with the Washington Post, the major national newspaper most commonly cited in U.S. academic circles. It is one of the only metropolitan newspapers that does not rely primarily on commercial wire services for coverage outside its namesake locale. According to its Quantcast audience profile, it shares online readership  primarily with other business-minded publications such as The Economist and The Wall Street Journal, and recieves approximately 13.9 million visits per month.

Usefulness: The multimedia display provides visual documentation of performance changes in math and reading following the passage of NCLB. Visual presentations are especially useful for explaining research results to lay audiences, making it a valuable addition to my research project.

Works cited:

“nytimes.com – Quantcast Audience Profile,” http://www.quantcast.com/nytimes.com

Summary: 2002 Department of Education presentation outlines the requirements for school administrators.

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Institutional; PowerPoint Presentation

Publication Information: Student Achievement and School Accountability Conference, U.S. Department of Education, 10/02

Author: N/A

Location: Ed.gov

Accessed: March 12, 2009

Support:

• Required accountability system: The presentation indicates that states must create their own systems based on standardized assessments of all students, and implement a mechanism for holding schools accountable to the results of those assessments. There is no recommendation of a preferential system.
• How a state makes adequate yearly progress: The presentation indicates states must establish the AYP standard on their own, and then conduct an annual peer-review to determine whether that standard was met. There is no articulation of a specific mechanism that is preferable for meeting this requirement.

Audience and Agenda: The Department of Education is responsible for administering federal education law in the United States, and is headed by the Secretary of Education, who is appointed by the President of the United States at the beginning of his first term in office.

Usefulness: The presentation is more useful for what it doesn’t say than what it does. At no point is there any articulation or explanation of ways in which schools can meet federal guidelines, only the requirement that they do so. This makes the presentation useful support for the “reform” argument, as it isn’t realistic to expect schools to comply with regulations if they aren’t provided with some initial means to do so.

Summary: Presentation of survey results reveals conflicted public opinion of NCLB.

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Institutional; PowerPoint Presentation

Publication Information: Educational Testing Service (ETS), 6/07

Author: Peter D. Hart Research Associates, Inc., and The Winston Group

Location: ETS.org

Accessed: March 12, 2009

Support:

• Graph of the general public’s attitude towards NCLB: 24% of those polled in 2007 had a “very unfavorable” opinion of NCLB, and 43% stated their views were “somewhat unfavorable.”
• Graph of general public’s knowledge of NCLB:  45% of the general public, and 47% of parents of K-12 students, reported knowing a fair amount about NCLB. 16% of the general public and 13% of parents of K-12 students reported knowing nothing at all about NCLB.

Audience and Agenda: ETS is a nonprofit organization that provides test development services and testing research to policy makers, school administrators, and teachers. ETS is also the largest provider of standardized testing services to public schools and government agencies. As ETS is a leader in the field of standardized assessments, their public opinion research is especially applicable to the issues surrounding No Child Left Behind.

Usefulness: The research conducted for the ETS presentation shows a major disconnect between policy makers and the voting public. The negative public perception and general lack of knowledge of No Child Left Behind makes this presentation useful support for the reform argument, as we can ascertain that a large part of noncompliance under NCLB’s requirements is primarily due to resentment and misunderstanding.

Works cited:

“ETS: Educational Testing Service – About,” http://www.ets.org/

Summary: U.S. Department of Education presentation outlines the initial framework for NCLB.

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Institutional; Multimedia Presentation; PowerPoint

Publication Information: U.S. Department of Education, 4/24/06

Author: N/A

Location: Ed.gov

Accessed: March 12, 2009

Support:

● Graph of 4th grade reading proficiency between 1992 and 2000: Shows only slight increase over the eight year period.

● Line graph of reading scores and spending on reading curriculum between 1982 and 2001: The graph displays a noticeable increase in funding for reading programs, but not the expected increase in reading scores.

● The four principles of No Child Left Behind: The slide articulates accountability, flexibility, research-based reform, and parental options as the four guiding principles behind the law.

Audience and Agenda: The Department of Education is responsible for overseeing the implementation of all federal education law in the United States. The Department is headed by the Secretary of Education, who is appointed by the President of the United States at the beginning of his first term in office.

Usefulness: The presentation outlines how the Department of Education originally envisioned No Child Left Behind. This is useful for my presentation as it provides a standard to which to compare the  legislation’s effects to date.

Summary: Students at high-scoring Oregon elementary school arrive for their first day of school.

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Journalistic; Image of Classroom

Publication Information: The Oregonian, 8/30/08

Author: Stephanie Yao, photographer

Location: OregonLive.com 

Accessed: March 12, 2009

Support:

• (Focus) Beaver Acres Elementary School, Beaverton, OR: Beaver Acres is one of the few Oregon schools that has consistently met proficiency goals under No Child Left Behind. As of 2008-2009, 835 students are enrolled at Beaver Acres.
• Accompanying article of same title and date, by Betsy Hammond: 70 out of Oregon’s 1200 schools have failed to make adequate yearly progress and have undergone restructuring under NCLB.

Audience and Agenda: The Oregonian is the largest newspaper of the city of Portland, Oregon, and the second largest newspaper in the Pacific Northwest behind the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, with a circulation of 384,729. OregonLive.com is the official online portal of The Oregonian, and recieves approximately 1.2 million visits a month according to its Quantcast Audience Profile.

Usefulness: The contrast between image and article illustrates the disparity between haves and have-nots across America’s education spectrum. Underfunded schools, especially in rural areas, continue to perform poorly due to a lack of support assets, while larger, better-funded urban and suburban schools readily embrace the guidelines of NCLB.

Works cited: 

“Beaverton School District – Home > Schools > Beaver Acres > Detailed Snapshot,” http://www.beaverton.k12.or.us/home/schools/beaver-acres/detailed-snapshot/

“No Child Left Behind changes Oregon education – OregonLive.com,” http://www.oregonlive.com/news/index.ssf/2008/08/no_child_left_behind_changes_o.html

“Top 100 Newspapers in the United States,” http://www.infoplease.com/ipea/A0004420.html

“oregonlive.com – Quantcast Audience Profile,” http://www.quantcast.com/oregonlive.com

Summary: U.S. Education Secretary Margaret Spellings and Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty at a press conference regarding No Child Left Behind.

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Journalistic; Image of Press Conference

Publication Information: Minnesota Public Radio, 3/18/08

Author: Tim Nelson, photographer.

Location: minnesota.publicradio.org

Accessed: March 12, 2009

Support:

• U.S. Education Secretary Margaret Spellings: A major defender of No Child Left Behind, Spelling has 
• Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty: Pawlenty has been one of biggest state-level advocates for NCLB.
• Changes to No Child Left Behind: Spellings and Pawlenty appeared together to publicly introduce slight changes in NCLB’s accountability framework, specifically by allowing school administrator’s to target specific students for improvement.

Audience and Agenda: Minnesota Public Radio maintains 38 stations in the Midwestern U.S. and is owned and operated by American Public Media of St. Paul, MN. The Quantcast Audience Profile for minnesota.publicradio.org identifies total monthly visits of 162,000.

Usefulness: The photo accompanied an article of the same title, also by Tim Nelson, published on March 18, 2008 on the MPR website. The photo is useful as a visual representation of the late changes made by the backers of NCLB to its performance-measuring mechanism, and is symbolic of the conflict between policy makers and the public over the methodology of the law.

Works cited:

“MPR: Education secretary announces changes to No Child Left Behind,” http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2008/03/18/spellings/

“MPR: About Us,” http://minnesota.publicradio.org/about/

“minnesota.publicradio.org – Quantcast Audience Profile,” http://www.quantcast.com/minnesota.publicradio.org

Summary: Education professor feels NCLB is actually disenfranchising more students than it is helping through one-track performance guidelines.

Topic: Should the Obama Administration reform the No Child Left Behind Act?

Category: Academic; Research Essay

Publication Information: The Clearing House, Jan/Feb 2008, Vol 81 Issue 3, p133-137

Author: Theoni Soublis Smyth

Location: EBSCOhost

Accessed: March 12, 2009

Support:

• “With equity for all,” K. Beers, Voices from the Middle (2005): Beers contends that underperforming schools often simply lack the administrative and curriculum resources to meet the requirements of NCLB. Smyth identifies this as a discrepancy in NCLB’s stated goal of elevating disadvantage students, as the law fails to take into account the day-to-day struggles that caused the school’s low performance, much less provide any financial support to remedy them.
• “Highly qualified special educators and the provision of a free appropriate public education to students with disabilities,” J.M. Jameson and D.S. Huefner, Journal of Law and Education (2006): Jameson and Huefner argue that NCLB unfairly burdens schools with special-needs students by not funding the “highly-qualified” teachers it mandates. Smyth feels this creates a double-bind situation for schools that are struggling just to retain the teachers they already have.

Audience and Agenda: The Clearing House is an academic journal covering education administration issues published by Heldref Publications (Washington, DC). Theoni Soublis Smyth is an associate professor of education at the University of Tampa, and holds a PhD from the University of South Florida.

Usefulness: Smyth’s essay highlights the discrepancy between No Child Left Behind’s stated goals and the harsh realities of many impoverished public schools. The law’s failure to take into account such readily apparent factors as lack of local funding provides support for the “reform” argument and highlights specific areas policy makers should address in future versions.

Works cited:

“Heldref Publications – The Clearing House,” http://www.heldref.org/tch.php

“University of Tampa – Tampa, Florida,” http://www.ut.edu/detail.aspx?bio=1&id=5932